Timeline of the Templars - Part III (13th Century)

In Part 2, the 12th century saw the end of the 3rd Crusade as well as the death of the Grand Master Gilbert Horal and the election of Phillipe de Plessis. Moving into the 13th century, the Knights Templar continued to expand their influence and wealth across Europe, receiving donations, gifts, and land grants from nobles and monarchs supportive of the Crusades and the Templar Order. The Templar order reached its height of power in Europe during the term of Phillipe de Plessis.

The Fourth Crusade

The Fourth Crusade is one of the most controversial and ill-fated of the Crusades. Initially intended to conquer Muslim-controlled Jerusalem by invading through Egypt, the campaign instead culminated in the sack of the Christian city of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire.

Pope Innocent III called for the Fourth Crusade in 1198, aiming to reclaim Jerusalem from Muslim rule. Unlike previous crusades, the strategy involved attacking Egypt first, as it was seen as the weakest point of Muslim power and a crucial step towards securing Jerusalem. The Crusaders, primarily from France and Italy, agreed to meet in Venice and arrange transport to the Middle East.

The Crusade quickly faced logistical and financial difficulties. The Venetians, led by Doge Enrico Dandolo, had agreed to provide ships but demanded a high fee. When the Crusaders couldn’t pay the full amount, they struck a deal to help Venice capture the rebellious city of Zara (modern-day Zadar in Croatia), a Christian city under Hungarian protection. This act of attacking a Christian city was condemned by the Pope, but highlighted the growing complexity and shifting motivations of the Crusade.

After capturing Zara, the Crusaders found themselves further diverted by Byzantine politics. Alexios IV Angelos, the son of a deposed Byzantine emperor, promised financial and military support for the Crusade if they helped him reclaim the throne from his uncle, Alexios III. Eager for resources, the Crusaders agreed.

In 1203, the Crusaders successfully installed Alexios IV as co-emperor alongside his father, Isaac II. However, the promised support from the new regime did not materialize as expected, leading to tensions. In January 1204, a palace coup resulted in the murder of Alexios IV and the rise of Alexios V, who opposed the Crusaders. Feeling betrayed and desperate for resources, the Crusaders decided to attack Constantinople.

In April 1204, the Crusaders breached the city walls and sacked Constantinople. The city was subjected to days of looting, destruction, and atrocities, shocking the Christian world. Artifacts, religious relics, and immense wealth were taken, and the Byzantine Empire was left devastated. After the sack, the Crusaders established the Latin Empire of Constantinople, which lasted until 1261. This empire struggled to maintain control and never achieved stability. The Emperor of Constantinople was Baldwin I, but within a year he was captured and killed by Bulgarians. His brother, Henry of Flanders, succeeded him and served until 1216.

Almaric (or Aimery) II (brother of Guy de Lusignan and husband of Isabella I of Jerusalem), King of Jerusalem and Cyprus, died from food poisoning on the first day of April 1205. His 6-year-old son, Hugh I, succeeded him as King of Cyprus, and Isabella I, his wife, continued to reign as Queen of the Kingdom of Jerusalem for only 4 days before she died. The throne passed to Maria, the daughter of Isabella I and Conrad I of Montferrat (Isabella’s first husband).

Phillipe de Plessis is said to have died on November 12, 1209, but some sources list him as dying in 1208. He was succeeded by Guillaume de Chartres who was elected and installed as Grand Master at the beginning of 1210. Guillaume assisted in the coronation of John I as King of Jerusalem who had married Queen Maria.

The Albigensian Crusade

The Albigensian Crusade was a significant and brutal chapter in medieval history, initiated by the Catholic Church to eradicate the Cathar heresy in the Languedoc region of southern France. The Cathars, also known as the Albigensians, adhered to a dualist belief system that starkly contrasted with orthodox Catholic doctrine. Their belief in the evil nature of the material world and their rejection of the Catholic Church’s sacraments and hierarchy made them a target for the Church’s aggressive efforts to maintain religious unity and authority.

By the late 12th century, Catharism was heavily entrenched in the Languedoc region. Efforts to convert Cathars through preaching missions led by figures like Saint Dominic largely failed, leading Pope Innocent III to take more drastic measures. After the murder of the papal legate Pierre de Castelnau in 1208, which was attributed to Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse, the pope called for a crusade against the Cathars.

The crusade began in earnest in 1209, with northern French nobles and knights rallying to the cause, partly motivated by the promise of land and wealth in the prosperous Languedoc region. The first major military action was the Siege of Béziers in July 1209. When the town refused to surrender, the Crusaders launched a brutal assault. During the massacre that followed, thousands of inhabitants were killed, including many Catholics, leading to the infamous quote attributed to the papal legate, Arnaud Amalric: “Kill them all; God will know his own.”

Following the fall of Béziers, the Crusaders moved on to Carcassonne, another stronghold of Catharism. After a 2-week siege, the town surrendered in August 1209. The inhabitants were expelled, and the town was handed over to Simon de Montfort, a nobleman from northern France who was the de facto leader of the crusade. Over the years, the Crusaders moved through the region capturing Cathar fortresses or cities like Lavaur, Minerve, and Termes.

Toulouse, the heart of the Cathar resistance, became a focal point of the crusade. Simon de Montfort laid siege to the city multiple times, but Toulouse itself remained resilient. In 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council formally deposed Raymond VI and granted his lands to Simon de Montfort. Despite this, the struggle continued, and in 1217, Raymond VI recaptured Toulouse.

In 1218, a stone projectile killed Simon de Montfort during another siege of Toulouse. His death marked a turning point, as the crusade lost one of its most effective and feared leaders. Raymond VI regained much of his territory, and the crusade’s momentum waned.

From 1220 to 1224, numerous smaller sieges and battles occurred as the Crusaders and local lords vied for control over various strongholds. One pivotal event was the Siege of Avignon. Avignon, a key strategic stronghold and center of resistance, was targeted by King Louis VIII, who aimed to suppress the remaining pockets of Cathar opposition and enforce royal authority. The siege was marked by intense military action as Louis VIII’s forces surrounded and blockaded the city. Despite the defenders’ resistance, the siege was relatively short, and Avignon fell to the French troops after several months. The city's capture was significant in the broader context of the crusade, contributing to the suppression of Catharism and the solidification of French control in the region. The fall of Avignon underscored the final stages of the crusade, marking a key step in the French crown’s efforts to stabilize and dominate the Languedoc region.

Despite the setbacks, the crusade did not end immediately. Raymond VII, who succeeded his father Raymond VI, continued to resist the Crusaders. However, sustained pressure from the French Crown and the Church eventually forced him to negotiate. The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1229, marked the formal end of the Albigensian Crusade. Raymond VII was forced to cede significant territories to the French Crown and to accept the establishment of the Inquisition in Languedoc to root out the remaining Cathars.

While the crusade was formally ended, remnants of Cathar resistance persisted in the region. The Cathar movement did not disappear immediately, and there were still strongholds and communities that continued to resist the French crown and the Inquisition. The Siege of Montségur (1243–1244) was a dramatic and decisive confrontation during the final phases of the Albigensian Crusade. Montségur, a formidable Cathar stronghold situated on a high, rocky hill, was besieged by the forces of the French crown and the Inquisition. The siege lasted from March 1243 to March 1244. The aftermath was brutal: approximately 200 Cathar defenders, who refused to renounce their faith, were burned at the stake. The fall of Montségur marked the effective end of organized Cathar resistance and symbolized the culmination of the crusade’s efforts to eradicate heretical movements in the region.

The Albigensian Crusade had profound and lasting effects. It significantly weakened the feudal nobility of Languedoc and strengthened the French crown’s control over the region. The Cathar heresy was not immediately eradicated, but the systematic persecution by the Inquisition over the following decades ensured its gradual decline. By the mid-14th century, Catharism had largely disappeared as a significant religious movement. The crusade also left a legacy of brutality and religious intolerance. The massacre at Béziers and the ruthless suppression of the Cathars exemplified the extremes to which the Catholic Church and its allies were willing to go to maintain doctrinal unity and authority. This period marked a dark chapter in the history of medieval Christendom, characterized by the violent imposition of religious conformity and the destruction of a unique and diverse cultural and religious community.

The Templars did not play a leading role in this crusade. However, contrary to popular belief, the Templars were not entirely absent from this crusade. The Templars also played a role in the diplomatic efforts during the crusade. Given their respected status and connections with both secular and ecclesiastical authorities, they sometimes acted as mediators in negotiations and discussions. Their involvement in these diplomatic activities helped to facilitate communication and coordination among the various parties involved in the crusade. Also, true to their original mission, the Templars protected pilgrims and clergy traveling through the Languedoc region. The chaotic and violent nature of the crusade made such protection necessary, and the Templars’ reputation for safeguarding travelers was invaluable during this time.

They also did take part in battles of the Crusades against the Cathars or their supporters. One such example is the Battle of Muret (1213) where Simon de Montfort’s army defeated Peter II of Aragon. They may have also been present for the Siege of Carcassonne (1209) and the Siege of Toulouse (1217-1218). The latter of which may have been in the form of logistical support to the crusading army.

Officially, the Templars were aligned with the goals of the Albigensian Crusade, which aimed to eliminate Catharism, but despite their official stance, there have been allegations and speculations over the centuries that some Templars may have had sympathies toward the Cathars. Some of the theories stem from several possibilities. The Knights Templars had a significant presence in the Languedoc region, where Catharism was also prevalent. This geographic proximity led to interactions between Templars and Cathars. In some instances, local Templar commanders may have developed relationships with Cathar lords and communities. These relationships were more about local politics and alliances than official support for Cathar beliefs. The Templars often had to navigate complex local dynamics to maintain their holdings and influence. Some historians suggest that certain Templars might have been sympathetic to the Cathars’ ascetic lifestyle and emphasis on purity, which had superficial similarities to the Templars’ vows of poverty and chastity.

The Fifth Crusade

Queen Maria of Jerusalem died in 1212 and the throne passed to her infant daughter, Isabella II (sometimes called Yolanda), with John I serving as her regent until she came of age. Peter of Courtenay is elected Emperor of Constantinople after the death of Henry of Flanders.

In 1218, the Templars constructed the Château Pèlerin, or Pilgrim’s Castle, along the Israeli coast (~8 miles south of Haifa). The castle played a crucial role in safeguarding Christian routes and served as a base for the Order’s operations in the region.

Since the Fall of Jerusalem in 1187, the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem had been ruled from the city of Acre. The Crusaders desired to reclaim the Holy City. They planned to first conquer Egypt and then move to Jerusalem. The Templars participated in the Siege of Damietta, a key Egyptian port city. Although they initially succeeded in capturing Damietta in 1219, the Crusaders’ campaign ultimately failed due to poor strategic decisions and logistical challenges, leading to their defeat in 1221. The Siege of Damietta also resulted in the death of the Templar Grand Master, Guillaume de Chartres, on August 26, 1218. He was succeeded by Peter de Montaigu. Guerin de Montaigu, Peter’s brother, served as Grand Master of the Hospitallers at that time.

The Sultans of Cairo and Damascus united to defeat the Christians, but were repelled by an army composed of the Templars, Hospitallers, and the Teutonic Knights. The Sultan of Damascus then tried to negotiate a truce with the Christians via the Templar Grand Master, but the Papal Legate, Pelagius, refused to accept it, so the truce fell through. Had this truce come to fruition, the Sultan had promised to return pieces of wood from the True Cross that were captured during the Battle of Hattin. A truce finally came about in 1221, allowing the Templars to send troops to Spain to assist in the Reconquista.

The Holy Roman Emperor and the Sixth Crusade

In 1225, Maria was married to Frederick II, the Holy Roman Emperor, by proxy after John of Brienne, Maria’s father, traveled throughout Europe seeking assistance in the Holy Land. This marriage was part of Frederick’s broader strategy to strengthen his influence in the Crusader states as the marriage gave him a claim to the throne of Jerusalem.

Frederick II, who was also King of Germany, Italy, and Sicily, traveled to the Holy Land, not just to claim his rights through marriage, but also to assert his authority as King of Jerusalem. His journey was marked by diplomatic and military efforts aimed at reclaiming and securing Christian territories. Frederick’s approach was largely diplomatic, resulting in the Treaty of Jaffa in 1229, which temporarily secured Jerusalem for the Christians without significant military conflict. His reign, however, was controversial and faced opposition from various factions, including the papacy and local Crusader leaders.

Frederick II attacked Templar and Hospitaller lands after they criticized him for attempting to steal the wealth of the Christian Levant and was, for a time, excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church.

Isabella II died shortly after giving birth to her son, Conrad. Conrad inherited the Throne of Jerusalem from his mother. Frederick II served as the Regent of his son, but his regency was plagued by those who opposed Frederick’s perceived usurpation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

Led by the Holy Roman Emperor, the Sixth Crusade, started in 1228, was marked by diplomacy rather than warfare. The Templars were less involved in direct combat but played a role in the negotiations. Frederick II managed to secure Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Nazareth through a treaty with Sultan Al-Kamil of Egypt, temporarily restoring Christian control over these significant cities.

The Templars did participate in the Sixth Crusade, but their role was overshadowed by their skepticism of Frederick II’s leadership and the diplomatic methods he employed to achieve his objectives as they saw his accomplishments as temporary.

John of Brienne, after being removed as regent for his daughter, had served in many positions in service of the church, but in 1229 he was elected as Emperor-Regent for the Latin Empire of Constantinople as Baldwin II, son of Robert I (the previous Emperor), was too young to serve alone. John would serve until his death in March 1237.

Supporting the Reconquista

In the 13th century, the Knights Templar were actively involved in the Iberian Peninsula, playing a significant role in the Reconquista, the Christian effort to reclaim territories from Muslim rule. The Templars established numerous fortresses and commanderies in regions such as Aragon, Castile, and Portugal, serving as key military and strategic outposts. Their expertise in fortification and warfare significantly contributed to the Christian campaigns, providing vital support in battles and sieges. Notably, the Templars participated in major military actions, including the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, which marked a turning point in the Reconquista. Beyond their military endeavors, the Templars also engaged in administrative and economic activities, managing lands and resources to support their missions. Their presence in the Iberian Peninsula helped to bolster Christian defenses and facilitate the gradual expansion of Christian territories throughout the century.

In 1229, King Alfonso II, with the support of a coalition of Christian forces, including the Knights Templar, launched a campaign to capture Majorca, a crucial strategic island held by the Muslims. The Templars played a vital role in this campaign by providing essential military support and expertise. Their involvement was instrumental in the successful siege of the island's capital, Palma, which fell to the Christians, marking a decisive victory.

The Battle of Jerez took place on October 9, 1231. This battle was fought between the forces of the Kingdom of León, led by King Ferdinand III, and the Muslim forces. The battle was a significant victory for the Christian forces and contributed to their ongoing efforts to reclaim territory from the Muslim rulers in the region. In 1238, under Alfonso's leadership, Christian forces, including the Templars, laid siege to Valencia, which was then under Muslim control. The Templars assisted King James I of Aragon in capturing the town of Burriana in 1233. The Templars supported Ferdinand III of Castile in the siege and eventual capture of Jaén in 1246, further solidifying Christian control in southern Spain. They also assisted Ferdinand in capturing Seville in 1248. Seville had been one of the largest and most important cities in Muslim Spain.

Waning of the Templars in the Holy Land

Montaigu died in January of 1232 from a cerebral hemorrhage and was succeeded by Armand de Périgord. He is remembered for his failures, as they were often catastrophic and reduced the effectiveness of the Order in the Holy Land.

In 1236, the KnightsTemplar launched an attack on the town of Darbsak (also known as Darbasaq), located near the border with the Principality of Antioch. This effort was part of the Templars’ broader strategy to expand and consolidate their territories in the region. Darbsak, controlled by Muslim forces, was a strategic target due to its location and the potential to enhance the Templars’ influence and control in northern Syria. The Templars organized a substantial military force for the siege, leveraging their renowned expertise in warfare and siege tactics. However, the assault on Darbsak faced numerous challenges. The town’s defenses proved formidable, and the Muslim defenders were well-prepared to resist the Templar attack. Compounding the difficulties, the Templars encountered logistical problems, including shortages of supplies and reinforcements. Additionally, the defenders received support from neighboring Muslim forces, further bolstering their resistance. After a protracted and fierce struggle, the Templars were unable to breach the defenses of Darbsak. The siege ultimately failed, and the Templars were forced to withdraw, suffering significant casualties (around 80% of the troops) and loss of resources. The failed attack on Darbsak underscored the challenges the Templars faced in their efforts to expand their territories and highlighted the resilience and strength of the Muslim forces in the region.

The Khwarazmian Turks were forced out of their homeland in Central Asia by the Mongol invasion in the early 13th century. Displaced and seeking new territories, they moved westward and allied with the Sultan of Egypt, al-Salih Ayyub. This strategic partnership aimed to bolster Muslim resistance against the Crusader states in the Levant. In 1244, the Khwarazmian Turks captured Jerusalem, a significant blow to the Crusader's presence in the Holy Land, as it resulted in the city’s loss of Christian control once again. Their military prowess and aggressive tactics were further demonstrated at the Battle of La Forbie on October 17 of that year. In this decisive confrontation, the Khwarazmian Turks, alongside Egyptian forces, achieved a resounding victory over the combined armies of the Crusader states, including the Knights Templar, the Hospitallers, and other military orders. The battle was catastrophic for the Crusaders, leading to massive casualties (more than 30,000 died in this battle) and a severe weakening of their military strength in the region, thereby solidifying the Khwarazmian Turks’ reputation as formidable warriors and altering the balance of power in the Holy Land. 

Around 30 Templars survived the battle and it was here that Armand de Périgord was killed; some accounts state he was captured and died in prison 3 years later having refused to be ransomed. Two months after the Battle of La Forbie, the Crusaders and Templars suffered another defeat at the Battle of Gaza. This battle was against the Khwarazmian Turks and the Sultan of Egypt, and the defeat compounded the setbacks the Christians had experienced at La Forbie and solidified the position of the Muslim forces in the region. Whether Armand de Périgord died or was captured at the Battle of La Forbie is a matter of contention and confuses the role of Richard de Bures who either was elected to be Grand Master or just acted during the captivity of Armand de Périgord. Regardless, Richard died in 1247 during the Siege of Ascalon which resulted in the fall of this coastal city to the Muslim forces. Guillaume de Sonnac was elected as Grand Master of the Templars in 1247.

The Seventh Crusade

In 1248, the Seventh Crusade was launched by King Louis IX of France. In June 1249, the Crusaders and Templars captured Damietta in Egypt. In November, the army started towards Cairo, but had to go through Mansurah to defeat a large Egyptian force. The crusader army could not overcome the city as the Nile River was running high. In February 1250, a native Egyptian showed the Crusaders how to cross the river. Without having the support of the main Crusader army, Robert, the Count of Artois and brother to King Louis IX, launched an attack on Mansurah. De Sonnac spoke against the attack, but ultimately joined the assault. The Egyptian forces used the narrow streets against the knights who couldn’t maneuver and defend themselves. De Sonnac and one other Templar were the only ones who escaped Mansurah, though De Sonnac had lost an eye. As De Sonnac escaped, the rest of the Crusader army arrived and was able to drive back the Egyptians into Mansurah. In early April 1250, the Egyptians launched another assault on the besieging Crusaders. The Templars fought back, but they were overwhelmed, and the Grand Master was killed. This battle also resulted in the capture of King Louis IX. De Sonnac was succeeded by Renaud de Vichiers.

Renaud de Vichiers had previously served as Master of France where he had become friends with King Louis IX. He even helped to secure funds for the king’s release. The latter part of his tenure is murky as there are stories that state he had a falling out with King Louis IX and others state that he resigned in 1252, putting his friendship ahead of the order. Regardless, Renaud de Vichiers died on January 20, 1256, and was succeeded by Thomas Bérard.

In 1254, Conrad II died of malaria and his 2-year-old son, Conrad III, inherited the Throne of Jerusalem, but he grew up at the court of his uncle and guardian, Louis II, Duke of Bavaria, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem was ruled by a regent from Cyprus.

Christian In-Fighting

When Thomas Bérard took over the Templars, the Holy Land and the Templar order were in dire straits. The Templar and Christian properties in the Holy Land were reduced to a mere few cities and fortresses. The War of St. Sabas was a conflict between the rival Italian maritime republics of Genoa and Venice over control of Acre. This started at the beginning of Bérard’s reign, and the Templars were not spared from this war as they sided with the Venetians while the Hospitallers sided with the Genoese. This war lasted until 1270 when the Peace of Cremona officially ended hostilities between the two sides.

While the Christian civil war was still ongoing, sometime around the end of 1263 or the beginning of 1264, cooperation was initiated by Bérard with Hugo de Revel, Grand Master of the Hospitallers, and Anno von Sangershausen, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights. On July 24, 1261, the Byzantines, under the command of Alexios Strategopoulos, recaptured the city of Constantinople. Baldwin II, the Latin Emperor of Constantinople, fled to France. He pleaded for help from other monarchs, but it never gained traction, and Baldwin II died in October 1273, having lived off a pension given to him by Charles de Anjou.

In England, a conflict erupted between King Henry III and a faction of rebellious barons led by Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester and son of Simon de Montfort who led the Albigensian Crusade. The barons were dissatisfied with Henry’s autocratic rule and his failure to uphold the Provisions of Oxford, a series of reforms aimed at limiting royal authority and addressing grievances about governance and taxation. By 1263, the kingdom was engulfed in civil war, with both sides vying for control and resources to sustain their military campaigns.

In this chaotic environment, Prince Edward, the king’s son and future Edward I, sought to bolster his position and fund his forces. Temple Church in London, a stronghold of the wealthy and influential Knights Templar, housed a significant treasury. On April 13, 1263, Edward, acting out of desperation and a strategic need for resources, entered Temple Church and seized its treasury. This act of ransacking a sacred and respected institution was indicative of the dire straits faced by the royalist faction and the lengths to which Edward was willing to go to secure financial support for his father’s cause. The incident further inflamed tensions and underscored the deep divisions within the kingdom, ultimately leading to continued conflict and the eventual Battle of Evesham in 1265, where Edward’s forces decisively defeated the baronial opposition. Initially, the Templars lodged formal complaints and sought redress for the breach of their property and the loss of their funds. Their response reflected a mix of outrage and pragmatic concern for the financial and reputational damage inflicted by the Prince’s actions. The incident strained relations between the Templars and the royal family.

If dealing with this Christian in-fighting wasn’t enough, the Mameluke Baïbars murdered the Sultan of Cairo in 1260 and consolidated his power. In 1263, Baïbars attempted to lay siege on Acre, but retreated after a few days of fighting. In 1264, the Templars and Hospitallers captured Lizon, a stronghold between Haifa and Jenin. They then destroyed a Mameluke unit composed of 300 men. In the next year, Baïbars started a campaign of brutality that devastated the Christian kingdom. In March 1265, he utterly destroyed Haifa and Caesarea. He attempted to seize control of Chateau-Pelerin, but the Templars were able to repel the Mamelukes. Baïbars turned his attention on Arsûf, but the Hospitallers were able to resist. After a month, the city surrendered after Baïbars promised to let everyone go free. As soon as the gates were opened, the knights were imprisoned. In 1266, Baîbars attacked the fortress of Safed which was held by the Templars. Baîbars suffered huge losses and executed several of his generals in response to their suggestion to abandon the siege. After a month of fighting, the Mamelukes were able to capture the fortress. Baîbars, again, made a false promise of leniency to the knights, but this time, instead of imprisonment, the Templars were all beheaded. Next fell Beaufort and Antioch in 1268, a devastating blow to Christendom. Gaston then fell and word came of Mamelukesheading to La Roche Guillaume. He attempted to send a message to surrender, but this had already occurred. The Templar and Hospitaller Grand Masters pleaded to the Pope for more support. Another crusade was preached, but only the Kings of France and Aragon responded, but a large contingent of that Christian host sank during a terrible storm.

Conrad III dies at the age of 16 after being beheaded by the order of Charles I of Anjou. The throne of the Kingdom of Jerusalem passed to Hugh III of Cyprus, son of Henry of Antioch and Isabella of Cyprus; Hugh was a descendant of Isabella I of Jerusalem and had already been serving as Regent for Conrad III.

The Eighth and Ninth Crusades

The Eighth Crusade, initiated in 1270 by King Louis IX of France, was the last of the major Crusades to the Holy Land and North Africa. Unlike previous Crusades aimed primarily at the Holy Land, this campaign targeted the city of Tunis in North Africa. Louis IX believed that by capturing Tunis, he could convert its ruler to Christianity and use it as a base for future operations in the Holy Land. In July 1270, the Crusaders landed near the ancient city of Carthage and laid siege to Tunis. Before any major battles could occur, disease broke out in the Crusader camps, resulting in the death of King Louis IX on August 25, 1270. Prince Edward of England negotiated a truce with the Emir of Tunis to allow the Crusaders to withdraw and for Christian prisoners to be released.

In February 1271, the Knights Templar were forced to surrender Chastel Blanc (located in the Principality of Antioch) and retreat to Tortosa (modern-day Tartus, Syria).

The Ninth Crusade, led by Prince Edward of England (later King Edward I), took place between 1271 and 1272 and is often considered the last major Crusade to the Holy Land. Following the unsuccessful Eighth Crusade, Edward sought to aid the remaining Crusader states and counter the growing threat of the Mamelukes. Arriving in Acre in May 1271, Edward conducted several raids and military engagements against the Mamluks. In the same month, Edward led an expedition towards Nazareth, engaging Mamluk forces in a series of skirmishes intended to assert Crusader control and disrupt Mamluk activities in the region. In June 1271, Edward led a raid on Qaqun (southeast of Haifa). The raid involved a swift and intense attack on the city, which was strategically significant for its location and resources. Although the Crusaders achieved some level of success in the raid, the operation did not result in a decisive victory. It did not substantially alter the broader strategic situation in the region.

Over the next year, Prince Edward led his forces through various smaller skirmishes and raids in the vicinity of Acre, the main stronghold of the remaining Crusader states in the Holy Land. During this Crusade, an assassination attempt occurred against Prince Edward. The assassin, part of a Mamluk plot, managed to wound Edward with a poisoned dagger, which put his life in grave danger. The Knights Templar present immediately took action to save the prince. They provided Edward with an antidote and other medicinal treatments to counteract the effects of the poison. The Templars’ timely intervention and their knowledge of medicinal remedies were instrumental in Edward’s survival.

In 1272, news of his father’s illness and subsequent death forced Edward to return to England, ending the Crusade. The Ninth Crusade marked the final major attempt by Western European powers to reclaim the Holy Land, highlighting the declining influence and effectiveness of the Crusading movement by the late 13th century.

The Fall of Acre

On March 25, 1273, Thomas Bérard died and was succeeded by Guillaume de Beaujeu, whose family had ties with King Louis IX and Charles I of Anjou. Although elected on May 13, 1273, Beaujeu wouldn’t arrive in Acre until September 1275, as he had been in Europe visiting Preceptories. During his European tour, a council was held in Lyon in 1274 by Pope Gregory X, where they discussed a proposed merger between the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar. This proposal aimed to consolidate the resources, manpower, and financial assets of the two powerful military orders to strengthen the defense of the Crusader states against the advancing Mamluk forces. The merger was envisioned to create a more unified and effective force and streamline administrative operations. However, the proposal was ultimately rejected due to several factors. Both orders were deeply resistant to the loss of their autonomy and distinct traditions. The Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar had different strategic priorities and approaches—Hospitallers focused on medical care and charity, while the Templars emphasized military fortification. Consequently, the proposed consolidation was not realized, and the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar continued to operate independently.

In 1284, Hugh III of Cyprus, King of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, died and his son John II ascended to the throne, but he contended with Charles I of Anjou who purchased a claim to the throne and had supporters in Acre. John II died a year later, and the crown passed to his younger brother, Henry II of Cyprus, the last crowned King of Jerusalem (after the fall of Acre in 1291 it became a titular title).

Beaujeu entered into an agreement with the Egyptian Sultan called the “Truce of Tortosa.” The peace didn’t last long, particularly after some recently arrived Christians killed some Egyptian merchants and the Sultanate changed hands. The new Sultan sent roughly 200,000 men to take the city. The defense was left to the Knights Templar, Knights Hospitallers, and the Teutonic Knights. On May 16, 1291, the Saracen Sappers created a breach in the wall of Acre. On May 18, 1291, the Egyptians launched a massive attack. Beaujeu led the knights to stem the flood of Egyptians. During this valiant attempt, Beaujeu was hit by “darts and arrows of the enemy,” where legend states Beaujeu dropped his sword and began to walk away. His fellow knights called after him, and he responded with “I am not running away, I am dead!” raising his arm to show his mortal wound, after which he collapsed and died. After a few more days of defense, the Muslims finally captured Acre and ended the Crusader occupation of the Holy Land. Guillaume de Beaujeu was succeeded by Thibaud Gaudin.

Thibaud Gaudin was present at the Siege of Acre, but when it was clear that Acre was going to fall to the Saracens, he was put on a boat for Sidon (Acre is south of Tyre and Sidon is north of Tyre). In August 1291, in Sidon, Gaudin was elected as GrandMaster. In October 1291, with a larger convocation gathered, the knights reaffirmed Gaudin’s election and elected Jacques DeMolay as Marshal. After the fall of Acre and the approach of the Saracens on Sidon, Gaudin went to Cyprus to gather more reinforcements. With the decline of fortunes in the Holy Land, Gaudin tried to reorganize the Templars, but was busied with helping protect the Kingdom of Armenia. It is believed that the job was too much for him because on April 16, 1292, he died of exhaustion.

The Last Grand Master

At the death of the previous Grand Master in 1292, Jacques de Molay was elected as Grand Master. The Templars were now headquartered on the island of Cyprus. Losing their last footing, the Templars lost their raison d'être, so De Molay departed for Europe to seek support for a Crusade to retake the Holy Land. This proved difficult as morale was down and, politically, the Templars were seen as the “men who lost the Holy Land,” so there was little faith in their ability to conquer the Mamluks. He was able to secure supplies to assist in the strengthening of the Cyprus island but couldn’t muster any commitment for a new Crusade. Jacques De Molay endeavored in the early years to reform the Order to strengthen it and prepare the knights for battle against the Egyptian Mamluks. They tried several times to take the coastal city of Tortosa (Syria) but relied on the assistance of the Mongols. Their faith in Mongol assistance was misplaced, as they had their own internal/tribal issues, and each time they attempted to retake Tortosa, they were pushed back to the staging island of Ruad.

In the 13th century, the Knights Templar were actively engaged across the Iberian Peninsula, Europe, and the Holy Land. In the Iberian Peninsula, they played a crucial role in the Reconquista, participating in key battles and sieges to reclaim territory from Muslim rule. In Europe, they wielded significant political and financial influence, and managed extensive assets. In the Holy Land, they were essential defenders of the Crusader states against the Mamluk Sultanate but faced increasing setbacks as Mamluk forces gained ground. The fall of Acre in 1291 marked the end of significant Crusader presence in the region, leading to a shift in Templar focus to their European holdings and setting the stage for the Order’s eventual dissolution in the early 14th century.

References

1. Bréhier, L. (1910). Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099-1291). In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08361a.htm

2. Essays, Biographies and Reviews. (n.d.). Retrieved from Balian d'Ibelin and the Kingdom of Jerusalem: http://www.defenderofjerusalem.com/essays--biographies--reviews.html 

3. Kingdom of Jerusalem. (n.d.). Retrieved from Encyclopedia Brittanica: https://www.britannica.com/place/kingdom-of-Jerusalem 

4. The History of the Knights Templar in relation Scottish Chronology. (n.d.). Retrieved from The Rosslyn Templars: http://www.rosslyntemplars.org.uk/index.php/knights-templar/ 

5. Timeline. (n.d.). Retrieved from Ordre du Temple: http://www.knight-templar.org.uk/History/timeline.htm.html 

6. Timeline of the Ancient Templars. (n.d.). Retrieved from The Knights Templar: https://www.theknightstemplar.org/timeline-of-the-templars/

Visit to London

It's been a fantastic week for me. I just finished spending 5 full days in the London area. Last Sunday I left home and flew into the UK (landing on Monday morning). After checking in to my hotel, I walked around London to get my bearings. I visited the British Museum and then visited Freemasons' Hall. It is a beautiful building, especially the Shrine and Grand Temple.

 

On Tuesday, I visited Tower Bridge, the Tower of London (and the Crown Jewels), the London Mithraeum, Mercer's Hall (just a quick picture), St. Paul's Cathedral (and yes I climbed all 500+ steps to the top), and then stopped by the plaque marking where the first Grand Lodge was established in 1717. It was an exhausting day, but I saw a lot; I probably did 2,000 steps just to climb stairs.

 

  

Wednesday morning I toured Temple Church. I could've spent all day in there, but once I had seen as much as I could I made my way over to Freemasons' Hall to attend the Provincial Grand Chapter and Provincial Grand Lodge of Surrey. I found it fascinating to watch the ceremonies of British Royal Arch and Craft Masonry. I was blown away by the fact that over 900 Brothers attended the Provincial Grand Lodge meeting.

 

Thursday morning and afternoon were a time of recovery and relaxation; I was also troubleshooting my phone before I realized there was an International Coverage Outage for Verizon and other carriers (Thanks Syniverse). Thursday night I was conducted through the Trial of Corax in Britannia Legion No. 1 of the Mysteries of Mithras. Afterward, we retired to the dining room and had a great meal. There were also toasts and a lot of socializing. I talked with Brothers from all over the world.

Friday I walked around Buckingham Palace (it's not open for tours until July), St. James Park, Westminster Abbey, Big Ben and Parliament,  Trafalgar Square, and St. James Palace. I then found a nice pub to have a meal and beer before returning to my hotel to get ready for my flight home. I want to thank the English Brothers for all of their hospitality.

  

My flight from London to the US was enjoyable. It was the last flight for a Captain who had flown for nearly 36 years.

The Templar City of Tomar

Nestled within central Portugal lies the enchanting Templar city of Tomar. Steeped in history and shrouded in legend, Tomar stands as a testament to the enduring legacy of the Knights Templar. Founded in the 12th century by Gualdim Pais, the Master of the Templars in Portugal, Tomar served as a strategic stronghold and spiritual center for the order, playing a pivotal role in the defense of the region during the Reconquista. Known for its impressive architectural heritage, rich cultural tapestry, and significant historical importance, Tomar is often referred to as the "Templar City." Today, Tomar is celebrated for its architectural heritage, including the Convent of Christ which embodies the fusion of Templar and Manueline styles.

In 711 AD, Muslim forces under the command of Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and defeated the Visigothic Kingdom at the Battle of Guadalete. Within a few years, much of the Iberian Peninsula fell under Muslim rule, except for a few small Christian enclaves in the northern mountains. The Kingdom of Asturias, established in the mountainous region of northern Iberia, became the focal point of Christian resistance. Over the next several centuries, Christian kingdoms gradually expanded southward, reclaiming territory from Muslim rule through a series of military campaigns and sieges. The Kingdom of León, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal emerged as key players in the Reconquista.

The Kingdom of Portugal was established in 1139, following the Battle of Ourique, where Afonso I, also known as Afonso Henriques, emerged victorious against the Moors. Afonso declared himself the first King of Portugal and began the process of consolidating power and expanding Portuguese territory. However, it's important to note that the region of modern-day Portugal had been inhabited and governed by various peoples and entities prior to this establishment as a kingdom, including the Romans, Visigoths, and Moors. The Battle of Ourique is often considered a pivotal moment in Portugal's history, marking the beginning of its journey toward nationhood.

Fueled by the Crusader spirit of the Holy Land, the Reconquista drew inspired Christian warriors and chivalric knighthoods to the Iberian Peninsula to fight back the Moors. The Knights Templar first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in the early 12th century. Their military expertise and financial resources made them valuable allies to Christian rulers engaged in the Reconquista.

The Templars played a crucial role in the construction and defense of key fortifications along the Christian frontier, including castles, watchtowers, and fortified towns. One such strategic stronghold was Tomar. King Afonso I of Portugal granted lands to the Knights Templar as a reward for their assistance in the Reconquista and as a means of securing the newly gained territories. In 1160, the Knights Templar began constructing the Castle of Tomar, which served as the initial headquarters for the Templar Order in Portugal. Over time, their presence expanded, and in 1162, Gualdim Pais, a prominent Templar Knight, began the construction of a castle and the Convent of Christ atop the nearby hill. This vast complex served as the headquarters of the Knights Templar in Portugal and played a crucial role in their activities throughout the region.

The Convent of Christ in Tomar became not only a fortified stronghold but also a center of religious and military activity for the Order. It housed knights, monks, and pilgrims, and its grand architecture reflected the power and influence of the Templars. The Knights Templar were deeply involved in the defense of Portugal against Muslim incursions from the south, and Tomar served as a strategic base for their operations.

However, the glory days of the Knights Templar came to an abrupt end in the early 14th century. In 1312, under pressure from the King of France and the Pope, the Order was disbanded, and many of its members were arrested and executed. In Portugal, King Denis negotiated with Pope John XXII to transfer the assets and properties of the Templars to a newly formed Order of Christ, which was established in 1319 and fell under the authority of the Portuguese Crown. The Convent of Christ in Tomar became the headquarters of this new order, ensuring the continuation of the Templar legacy in Portugal.

The Order of Christ became a military, political, and economic power and influence that was given more land holdings, tax exemptions, and permission to mint its own coin. It was at the Convent in Tomar that the Iberian Union was established in 1581 and lasted until 1640 (during which time the Crowns of Portugal and Spain were united in a dynastic union). The wealth of the order would help fund Portugal’s legendary maritime voyages.

Under the Order of Christ, the Convent of Christ underwent further expansion and embellishment, becoming one of the most important religious and cultural centers in Portugal. In the 15th century, two cloisters were constructed (the Cemetery Cloister and Washing Cloister) as was the Chapel of São Jorge. King Manuel (who also served as Master of the Order of Christ) had the Hall of Passage built that connected the choir to the Chapel of São Jorge. King John III demilitarized the Order of Christ and they were more similar to the Cistercians than they were to the former Templar order. King John III ordered the construction of a new cloister for the order which is considered the best example of Renaissance architecture in Portugal. Saint Barbara's Cloister was built that has a view of the beautiful Chapter House Window and the western side of the church’s nave. The Cloister of John III was started during this time, but didn’t finish until the reign of Philip I of Portugal. During the 17th century, a 6-km aqueduct for the Convent was built. The Order of Christ remained active until the dissolution of the religious orders in the 19th century.

Today, the Convent of Christ in Tomar stands as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, a testament to the enduring legacy of the Knights Templar and their successors, the Order of Christ.

Outside of the Convent now lies a city with a rich history. Located near the Convent is the Mata Nacional dos Sete Montes (National Forest of the Seven Hills) which is described as a lush green park with paths, gardens, and scenic views. Within the city, there are many historical buildings like the Church of Santa Maria do Olival which is a 12th century Gothic church that served as a burial place for the Knights Templar in Portugal (including Gualdim Pais). One of the oldest synagogues in Portugal is in Tomar which also houses the Jewish Museum of Abraham Zacuto. The Praça da República (Republic Square) is surrounded by the City Hall and the Igreja de São João Baptista Church of Saint John the Baptist).

The City of Tomar stands as a living testament to the enduring legacy of the Knights Templar, with its medieval streets, imposing castle, and the majestic Convent of Christ serving as reminders of a bygone era. Visitors to this charming city are greeted with an opportunity to step back in time, explore the mysteries of the Knights Templar, and marvel at the architectural wonders they left behind. As one wanders through the narrow alleys and ancient buildings of Tomar, they are transported to a world where knights once roamed and legends were born.

References

1. Convento de Cristo. (n.d.). Retrieved from Monument History: http://www.conventocristo.gov.pt/en/index.php?s=white&pid=168&identificador=ct12_pt 

2. Hero Traveler. (n.d.). Retrieved from Tomar: The Templar City of Portugal: https://www.herotraveler.com/ncvieceli/story/tomar_the_templar_city_of_portugal 

3. Templar Knights. (n.d.). Retrieved from Tomar and the Knights Templar Region: https://templarknights.eu/about-tomar/ 

4. The Best Portugal. (n.d.). Retrieved from Tomar the Last Knight Templar City: https://thebestportugal.com/tomar-the-last-knight-templar-city/ 

5. Wright, N. (2019, July 05). Portugal Resident. Retrieved from Tomar – Portugal’s Knights Templar Town: https://www.portugalresident.com/tomar-portugals-knights-templar-town/

Timeline of the Templars - Part II (12th Century)

In Part I, I discussed the fall of the Roman Empire, the continuation of the Byzantine Empire, the rise and expansion of the Islamic faith, the Holy Roman Empire, the Great Schism, the conflicts of Islam and Christianity, the First Crusade, and the formation of the Knights Templar. Part II will go through the events following the establishment of the Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and the Temple of Solomon through the end of the 12th century.

The Formative and Expansive Years

Part I left from the point that the Templars were founded and the Council of Nablus. The common legend by William of Tyre is that for the first 9 years of the Templar’s existence, they had no more than 9 knights, but according to another historian, Michael the Syrian, Hugh De Payen founded this Order with 30 Knights with him.

Hugh de Payens served as the Templar’s first Grand Master serving from its founding until 1136. During the first 9 years, not much is known of Templar activity and much is left to wild speculation. What is known is that around 1127, Hugh de Payens traveled back to Western Europe to garner support and recruit more knights. Traveling through France, the Templars were given land by Count Thybaud of Champagne. In 1128, Hugh de Payens traveled to London where land was donated where the first Temple Church would be built in Holborn, London.

The Templars also spread to the Iberian Peninsula where they were instrumental in pushing back the Moorish invaders during the Reconquista. Countess Teresa donated the Castle of Soure to them in March 1128.

In 1129, Hugh de Payens was summoned by Pope Honorius II to an ecumenical council that would be held in Troyes, France, which had been instigated by Bernard of Clairvaux, a Cistercian abbot and nephew to one of the Templar members, André de Montbard.

The Council of Troyes was attended by bishops, clergy, and representatives of various religious orders. Among its objectives, the Council’s most notable decision was its endorsement of the Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and the Temple of Solomon. Recognizing the military prowess and religious zeal of the Templars, the Council of Troyes granted official approval to the order, providing it with both spiritual legitimacy and material support. Through the efforts of St. Bernard, the Rule of the Templars was established.

By 1130, recruits were starting to flood to the order and the Templars had received gifts of castles and land in Germany, France, England, Scotland, Greece, and the Iberian Peninsula. Among the recruits was the Count of Champagne who had given up his title, lands, and family to join the Knights Templar and serve under his former vassal. Hugh de Payens returned to the Holy Land with new knights to help bolster the Templar order.

On August 31, 1131, King Baldwin II of Jerusalem died. His eldest daughter Milesende and her husband, Fulk (Count of Anjou), who had been married back in 1129, were crowned King and Queen of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem on September 14, 1131. In the first years of his reign, King Fulk had been constructing castles and fortresses to protect from the Saracens, but in 1137 he surrendered the castle at Montferrad (present-day village of Baarin in Syria).

Hugh de Payens died on May 24, 1136, in the Holy Land after leading the Knights Templar for about 18 years. Robert de Craon, who had been Seneschal for Hugh, was elected Grand Master of the Order. It was during Craon’s reign that three Papal bulls were issued. 

The first one, Omne Datum Optimum, was issued in 1139 by Pope Innocent II. Omne Datum Optimum is Latin for "Every Good Gift" and allowed the Templars to keep their spoils of war, placing donations directly under papal protection, and exempting them from paying tithe. This proclamation added a priest class to the hierarchy as well as made the members of the Order answerable to the Grand Master. 

The second Papal bull, Milites Templi, Latin for "Soldiers of the Temple," was issued by Pope Celestine II in 1144, gave ecclesiastical protection to the Knights Templar and further endorsed them by advocating that the faithful donate to the cause of the Templars. This along with the Templar's annual collections and with the next Papal Bull laid the base for the Order's famous wealth. 

The final Papal bull was called Militia Dei, which is Latin for "Soldiers of God," and was issued by Pope Eugene III in 1145. This was somewhat controversial as it allowed the Templar priests to take tithes, build their own churches, collect property taxes from their tenants, and bury their dead in their cemeteries. Some speculate that this gave the Order's priests to take confession, but others believe this is a false assumption as no language exists within this Papal Bull that allows for such liberties.

His battle records were mixed as he destroyed brigands led by the Emir of Aleppo as well as stopped Islamic incursions in Beaufort and Banyas. However, the Templars were defeated along with the Frankish army in 1139 at Teqoa (between Jerusalem and Hebron in the West Bank today).

The Second Crusade

After the death of King Fulk in 1143, the Crown of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem went to Baldwin, Fulk’s 13-year-old son, with Queen Melissende as his regent. The kingdom fell into decline due to the neglect of the Queen Regent and her failure to protect Edesse or Antioch. 

In 1144, Seljuk Turks led by Imad al-Din Zengi besieged and massacred more than 30,000 Christians in Edessa (in modern-day Eastern Turkey). Edessa was the most northerly, the weakest, and the least populated of the Crusader states. This event was the catalyst for the Second Crusade. Imad al-Din Zengi would die on September 14, 1146, by assassination. Amidst the chaos following Imad al-Din Zengi's death, his son Nur Ad-Din emerged as his rightful heir and successor.

Robert de Craon died on January 13, 1147, during the Second Crusade and was succeeded by Everard des Barres. At taking over as Grand Master he convened, in Paris, a meeting of the General Chapter of the Templars at which King Louis VII of France, Pope Eugenius III, many Templar knights and sergeants, and other Christian dignitaries were in attendance. It was also around this time that Pope Eugenius III authorized the use of the red cross on the Templar uniform, but whether or not it occurred at this meeting it is not known; some theorize that the approval to wear the red cross occurred in 1146.

Having previously served as the Preceptor of France, Everard was close to Louis VII and when the king sent out for the Holy Land on the Second Crusade, Everard and a host of Templars went along. Everard was sent ahead with other diplomats to treat the Byzantine Emperor, Manuel I Comnenus, and work out a contract to allow the Frankish army to pass through the Byzantine territory. Diplomacy was needed as both the Franks were as suspicious of the Byzantine Emperor as he was of them.

Once the Frankish Army arrived in Antioch, King Louis requested a loan of 2,000 silver marks from the Templar Grand Master to help finance further military operations; he had spent nearly all of his funds getting his troops to the Holy Land. It was from this point that the Templars became the bankers and treasurers for the kings and lords in the Holy Land and across Europe.

The call for a new crusade came primarily from Pope Eugene III, who urged Christian rulers across Europe to take up arms and defend the Holy Land, but others including Bernard of Clairvaux also carried the message and inspired Emperor Conrad III of Germany to lead an army to the Middle East.

In 1148, Everard des Barres led his Templar knights along with King Louis and King Baldwin III on an unsuccessful Siege of Damascus. King Baldwin wanted to use the newly arrived Frankish army to lay siege to Damascus. The siege would most likely have been successful, except politics got in the way and many of the Christian lords withdrew their troops and the Crusader army fell apart.

Led by Nur ad-Din Zengi, the ruler of Aleppo and Damascus, the Muslims took advantage of this disunity and attacked the city of Antioch in 1149. Nur ad-Din amassed a formidable army, drawing forces from various Muslim territories, including Aleppo, Damascus, and Mosul. The Muslim coalition was united in its goal to crush the crusader presence in the region and reclaim Antioch for Islam. The defenders of Antioch, led by Prince Raymond of Poitiers, braced themselves for the impending assault. Raymond was a skilled military leader and had played a significant role in the city's defense during previous conflicts. Despite the valiant efforts of the defenders, the Muslim forces launched a relentless siege, employing a combination of siege engines, catapults, and battering rams to breach the city's defenses. Ultimately, the walls of Antioch succumbed to the overwhelming force of the Muslim army which resulted in the loss of the city and the death of Prince Raymond of Poitiers who was beheaded. The loss of Antioch marked a turning point in the fortunes of the crusader states and highlighted the growing strength and unity of Muslim powers in the region.

After the defeat at Damascus, Everard accompanied King Louis back to France where he resigned and abdicated the office as Grand Master. He became a Cistercian monk at Clairvaux and lived there until his death on November 12, 1174. Bernard de Tremelay would take over the Knights Templar in 1149.

Siege of Ascalon

When Bernard de Tremelay became Grand Master, King Baldwin III gave him the fortified city of Gaza which was an important city as it sat as the gateway into Egypt, but it also stood between the Muslim-controlled city of Ascalon and Egypt. The Templar Grand Master rebuilt the walls and constructed new towers to ensure it was nearly impregnable by land or sea. To better protect from attacks from Ascalon, he had surrounding fortresses reinforced.

At the end of 1152, King Baldwin III decided to take advantage of the divided Muslim leadership and military victories of the Latin Kingdom by leading his troops to the city of Ascalon (between Gaza and Tel Aviv). In January of 1153, the Crusading army besieged this city. The city was besieged by land and sea, but was unable to prevent the city from being resupplied which caused the siege to cover several months. On August 15th, 1153, a Templar siege tower was set afire, but because of the prevailing winds the fire blew back at the Muslims, and the already weakened walls crumbled causing a breach to be opened in the Muslim defenses. 

The events that followed vary depending on the historical source, but all agree that the Templars were the first and only ones to make it through the breach which resulted in the slaughter of the Templars including the Grand Master, Bernard de Tremelay, on August 16th; he was the first Grand Master to die in battle. Their bodies were hung from the walls which incensed the Crusading army; the city fell three days later. After the death of Bernard de Tremelay, the Templar order elected André de Montbard, uncle of St. Bernard of Clairvaux, as Grand Master.

Montbard served only for three years and left no lasting fingerprint on the office of Grand Master; other than being the last of the founding knights. Montbard died on January 17th, 1156, in Jerusalem while in office and was succeeded by Bertrand de Blanchefort.

There is little information on when Bertrand de Blanchefort joined the Templar order, but what is known is that in 1156, just days after the death of the previous Grand Master, André de Montbard, Bertrand was elected to that position. His quick ascension was due to the fact that by 1156, Grand Master Montbard was an old knight and was in, as we shall say, semi-retirement in France. In Montbard's absence, the Order was overseen by Blanchefort.

Bertrand was taken prisoner after a battle between the forces led by King Baldwin III and the Islamic forces led by Nur ad-Din near Banyas or Paneas (near Mount Hermon) in 1157. He would remain a prisoner for 3-years until the Byzantine Emperor, Manuel I, negotiated a treaty with Nur ad-Din which included the release of the Frankish knights.

Once released, the Grand Master de Blanchefort worked on reforming the Rule of the Order which became known as the "Retraits." In this reform, he specified more clearly the duties and responsibilities of the ranks within the Templar hierarchy. These "Retraits" also established some checks and balances on the authority of the Grand Master. One interesting change he pushed for was the use of the title "Master by Grace of God" which was approved by Pope Alexander III.

In 1160, Gualdim Pais, the Master of Templars in Portugal, established the Castle of Tomar and the Convent of Christ which would serve as the headquarters of the Portuguese Templars and a strategic fortress in the Iberian Peninsula during the Reconquista.

In 1161, King Henry II of England donated land near the Thames where the English Templar headquarters would be and where Temple Church sits today. Temple Church itself is comprised of two sections called "The Round" and "The Chancel". The Round was the original nave and is based upon the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. The Round was consecrated on February 10, 1185, to Mary Theotokos by Heraclius, the Patriarch of Jerusalem.

Egypt

In 1162 or 1163, Amalric I succeeded his brother Baldwin III as head of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. His focus would fall upon the Caliphate in Cairo which was weakened by the infighting between the Sunni and Shiite sects of Islam. Amalric gathered his forces and set out to Egypt and was accompanied by the Templar and Hospitaller Orders. The Crusaders attempted to besiege the ancient city of Bilbeis in September of 1163, but had to retreat when the Egyptians destroyed the river embankments and flooded the plains where the Crusaders were stationed.

The following year, Amalric would have attempted to take the city, but Nur ad-Din started expanding and invading the Latin Kingdom so Geoffroi Foucher, a Templar, was sent to strike a deal with the Egyptian sultan to ally forces against Nur ad-Din; Nur ad-Din was accompanied by Salah ad-Din or Saladin, a great Kurdish Muslim leader who would become famous for his victories over the Crusaders. In 1168, Amalric I turned back to conquering Egypt, but because of a treaty the Templars did not take part in this operation and which resulted in a deterioration in the relationship between the Templars and the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

Bertrand de Blanchefort died of old age on January 2, 1169, in Reims, France. Phillipe de Milly, who had been a nobleman in the Holy Land and who had joined the Templars in 1166, was elected Grand Master. Many believe that King Amalric had campaigned in support of Phillipe so he could gain Templar support for his Egyptian campaign. The relationship between the Templars and the King of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem had been damaged during Blanchefort's time. Phillipe resigned as Grand Master early in 1171 and was succeeded by Odo de St Amand.

The Leper King

Amalric I died on July 11, 1174, and the throne went to his son, Baldwin IV, also known as Baldwin the Leper or the Leper King. Despite being afflicted with leprosy from a young age, Baldwin proved to be a skilled and determined ruler who displayed remarkable military prowess.

One of his victories was against Saladin at the Battle of Montgisard in 1177. The battle occurred on November 25, 1177, located near Ramla (Israel southeast of Tel Aviv). This battle was between a Christian army of 375 knights, 80 Knights Templar, and several thousand infantry against Saladin's army of around 27,000 men. Saladin underestimated the king and allowed his army to become spread out over a large area. The two forces met at Montgisard which caught Saladin by surprise and his troops were tired from their march from Egypt. The Crusader forces charged and broke through the center routing Saladin's forces. Both sides lost many, but the Muslim forces lost over three-quarters of their troops; Saladin himself only survived by escaping on a camel.

Toward the end of his rule, St. Amand oversaw the construction of an impregnable fortress known as Chastellet near Jacob's Ford on the Jordan River. This fortress was located in an important place and was effective in preventing Saladin's army from conquering Jerusalem in 1179. After Saladin was defeated at the fortress, the Christians thought they could inflict further damage on Saladin so they launched an assault at the Battle of Marj Ayun (southern Lebanon). 

Unfortunately, Saladin had reorganized his forces and defeated the Christian Army, killing and capturing many. Among those captured was the Templar Grand Master, Odo de St. Amand. There were proposals of ransoming him, but he refused as it was against the Rule of the Order. In the next year, St. Amand died while still in jail, but no exact date is known. 

Arnold of Torroja was elected Grand Master of the Templars in 1181 who was seen as an outsider and not prone to be too involved with the geopolitics of the region. Due to his appearance as an outsider and an impartial arbitrator, many groups used him to mediate disputes. During a truce (due to a drought) between Saladin and Baldwin, Torroja went on a tour of Europe with Patriarch Heraclius and Roger des Moulins, Grand Master of the Hospitaliers, to get more soldiers for another crusade, Torroja fell ill and died on September 30, 1184. Torroja’s Seneschal, Gerard de Ridefort, was elected as Grand Master by late 1184 or early 1185.

The Fall of Jerusalem

In 1185, the leper king, Baldwin IV, passed away and the sole authority passed to his nephew Baldwin V who was 8 years old at the time of his coronation, but the kingdom was run by a regent, Raymond, the Count of Tripoli. The next year Baldwin V died and the succession came into question. There were two major contenders for the throne: Sibylla, Baldwin IV's sister supported by Guy de Lusignan, and Isabella, Sibylla's younger half-sister, supported by Raymond III and the Hospitaller Grand Master. Ridefort and the Patriarch of Jerusalem sided with Guy de Lusignan, and in July of 1186 Guy and Sibylla were crowned King and Queen. 

It is not surprising that Ridefort didn’t support Raymond as Ridefort had formerly been in Raymond’s service before he was a Templar. When Raymond refused to marry Gerard to Lady Lucia, a rich heiress, the friendship soured and Ridefort left his service.

Raymond III's poor relationship with the monarchy gave Gerard de Ridefort the ability to label him as a coward and/or traitor which only gave Raymond the need to ally with Saladin. In reaction to crimes committed by Renaud de Chatillon, Lord of Oultrejordain, and the refusal of the king to punish him, Saladin desired to enter the Kingdom of Jerusalem to take care of Renaud himself. Raymond would only allow a small contingent to enter Galilee and only for a day. He informed the people and troops in the area to stay within their fortresses and avoid conflict. Learning of this Gerard de Ridefort sent some of his troops to defend Nazareth against the approaching Muslims. The Battle of Cresson would result in the slaughter of the Christian troops, with only a few survivors including Gerard de Ridefort.

Small encounters and fights would eventually lead to one of the bloodier battles of the Crusades, the famous Battle of the Horns of Hattin. Eventually, Saladin would invade the Kingdom and the King would call his troops. The Crusaders met at the Springs of Saffuriyah on the 27th of June and held a council. Many of the king's men advised the king to hold near a source of water and let Saladin come to them, allowing the heat to tire the enemy, which had occurred in previous battles against the Muslim forces.

Saladin had learned from past mistakes and did not move his forces from his water source so instead, he sent part of his force up to Tiberias and took the fortress belonging to Count Raymond, who was away, but whose wife and family were still in the castle. Even though counseled against by Raymond, at the advice of the Templar Grand Master the Crusading Army set off across the arid terrain through the blazing heat on the 2nd of July to face the Saracen army. The water went quickly, men and animals succumbed to the heat of the day, and the forces were harassed by Saracen scouting parties.

The Crusaders camped on the hills known as the Horns of Hattin, but Saladin's forces kept up the harassment campaign throughout the night. On the morning of July 4th, Saladin ordered the surrounding brush to be set on fire which sent a black smoke to flow into the already-parched Crusader camp. Then the battle started, it was a slaughter. Guy de Lusignan attempted to send his forces to take the springs near Hattin, but was repelled. The Crusading force was exhausted from the march plus they were dealing with desertion of their troops who refused to keep going forward. The infantry that did stay was defeated by the Muslim cavalry. Even the Knights Templar were defeated and those who were captured were beheaded, except for the Grand Master Gerard de Ridefort.

This victory made Saladin's force the dominant fighting force in the region and he continued through the kingdom using his noble captives as means to secure the surrender of castles and fortresses such as Acre, Ascalon, and Gaza; this would eventually lead to the fall of Jerusalem in July of 1187. This led to the Third Crusade which would start with the Siege of Acre. A few months later, Saladin released the Templar Grand Master and he took back the command of the Templar Order.

The Third Crusade

The Horns of Hattin had decimated the Templar order and the Crusading forces and would lead to the Third Crusade in 1189. The Templars would begin to grow their forces again and we see in 1189 that the Grand Master led the Templars in a campaign to support the Siege of Acre, along with the King Guy de Lusignan and his army`. The Siege of Acre would last for two years and cost countless lives on both sides of the fight. On the 4th of October, 1189, Gerard de Ridefort died at the foot of Mount Toron near the walls of Acre. Some say he died during the battle against Saladin's forces and others say he was first captured and then executed by Saladin.

The Knights Templar played a significant role in the prolonged Siege of Acre, ultimately resulting in its capture by the Crusaders. This victory helped to maintain a Christian presence in the Holy Land for several more decades. It’s also interesting to note that the Siege of Acre led to the formation of the Order of St. Thomas. Acre would also become the new headquarters for the Knights Templar due to the loss of Jerusalem where they were previously housed on the Temple Mount.

There was a delay in electing a new Grand Master as the Templar order wanted to avoid losing a Grand Master during battles so they amended the Rule concerning the role of the Grand Master. A year before the elections were held, Robert de Sablé joined the order and King Richard urged the Templars to elect de Sablé which occurred in 1191. Robert de Sablé served as counselor to King Richard I, the Lionheart, of England from 1190 to 1193, and even led King Richard's navy into the Mediterranean where he took part in several successive campaigns that recaptured many fortresses and cities along the Levantine Coast that had been lost to the Christians.

One of those captured cities was Arsuf which is also known as Apollonia (north of Tel Aviv). The Crusader army, led by King Richard I of England, engaged Saladin's forces. The Knights Templar, alongside other Crusader orders and armies, played a crucial role in securing victory for the Christians. Their disciplined fighting and tactical acumen helped to repel the repeated assaults by Saladin's forces, allowing the Crusaders to maintain control of key coastal territories.

The Third Crusade ended in a stalemate and Jerusalem was still in the hands of the Muslims. Both sides entered into the Treaty of Jaffa in 1192 which allowed for Christian pilgrims to visit Jerusalem without fear of persecution.

During his tenure as Grand Master, Robert de Sablé purchased the island of Cyprus from King Richard and served as Lord of Cyprus until 1193 when he sold the island to Guy de Lusignan, the King of Jerusalem as the Holy City had been captured by the Muslims after the Battle of Hattin. Robert de Sablé died on September 23, 1193, in Arsuf, Israel. Also in 1193, Saladin died leaving his sons in control of Cairo, Damascus, and Aleppo.

Gilbert Horal was elected as Grand Master of the Templars serving from 1193 to 1200. Tensions between the two orders were already strained because armed fighting over control of cities and castles around the Levant got so out of control that the Vatican had to intervene. Pope Innocent III favored the Hospitallers which is likely due to Horal's favor for peace with the Saracens. 

Horal continued to give Templar support to the Reconquista for which they were rewarded with the fortress of Alfambra (sometimes spelled Alhambra) by King Alfonso II of the Kingdom of Aragon in 1196 AD.

During the reign of Horal, the world saw the rise of the Orden der Brüder vom Deutschen Haus St. Mariens in Jerusalem, or, simply, the Teutonic Knights, rise from a monastic order to a full-fledged military order in 1198. 

Gilbert Horal died in December 1200 which was around the start of the Fourth Crusade. Phillipe de Plessis would succeed Horal as the Thirteenth Grand Master.

Conclusion

During the 12th century, the Knights Templar emerged as a prominent military order in the Holy Land during the Crusades. There were 12 Grand Masters of the Order. Hugh de Payens served the longest at 18 years. Everard des Barres and Robert de Sablé served the shortest terms at 2 years. The average length of a Grand Mastership was 6.4 years. Two Grand Masters resigned and abdicated their position. Three Grand Masters were killed in action.

While founded to protect Christian pilgrims, the Order expanded its role to become warriors, advisors, ambassadors, and bankers. They developed a sophisticated banking system, providing loans to nobles and kings, and managing vast estates and agricultural lands. They established a network of fortresses and castles across the Levant, strategically positioning themselves to defend Christian territories from Muslim incursions. Their military prowess and disciplined organization earned them respect and fear on the battlefield.

References

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10. Rowe, D. M. (2014). A Chronological View of the Crusades. Retrieved from Grand Encampment of Knights Templar USA: http://www.knightstemplar.org/KnightTemplar/articles/crusades.htm

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