In Part 2, the 12th century saw the end of the 3rd Crusade as well as the death of the Grand Master Gilbert Horal and the election of Phillipe de Plessis. Moving into the 13th century, the Knights Templar continued to expand their influence and wealth across Europe, receiving donations, gifts, and land grants from nobles and monarchs supportive of the Crusades and the Templar Order. The Templar order reached its height of power in Europe during the term of Phillipe de Plessis.
The Fourth Crusade
The Fourth Crusade is one of the most controversial and ill-fated of the Crusades. Initially intended to conquer Muslim-controlled Jerusalem by invading through Egypt, the campaign instead culminated in the sack of the Christian city of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire.
Pope Innocent III called for the Fourth Crusade in 1198, aiming to reclaim Jerusalem from Muslim rule. Unlike previous crusades, the strategy involved attacking Egypt first, as it was seen as the weakest point of Muslim power and a crucial step towards securing Jerusalem. The Crusaders, primarily from France and Italy, agreed to meet in Venice and arrange transport to the Middle East.
The Crusade quickly faced logistical and financial difficulties. The Venetians, led by Doge Enrico Dandolo, had agreed to provide ships but demanded a high fee. When the Crusaders couldn’t pay the full amount, they struck a deal to help Venice capture the rebellious city of Zara (modern-day Zadar in Croatia), a Christian city under Hungarian protection. This act of attacking a Christian city was condemned by the Pope, but highlighted the growing complexity and shifting motivations of the Crusade.
After capturing Zara, the Crusaders found themselves further diverted by Byzantine politics. Alexios IV Angelos, the son of a deposed Byzantine emperor, promised financial and military support for the Crusade if they helped him reclaim the throne from his uncle, Alexios III. Eager for resources, the Crusaders agreed.
In 1203, the Crusaders successfully installed Alexios IV as co-emperor alongside his father, Isaac II. However, the promised support from the new regime did not materialize as expected, leading to tensions. In January 1204, a palace coup resulted in the murder of Alexios IV and the rise of Alexios V, who opposed the Crusaders. Feeling betrayed and desperate for resources, the Crusaders decided to attack Constantinople.
In April 1204, the Crusaders breached the city walls and sacked Constantinople. The city was subjected to days of looting, destruction, and atrocities, shocking the Christian world. Artifacts, religious relics, and immense wealth were taken, and the Byzantine Empire was left devastated. After the sack, the Crusaders established the Latin Empire of Constantinople, which lasted until 1261. This empire struggled to maintain control and never achieved stability. The Emperor of Constantinople was Baldwin I, but within a year he was captured and killed by Bulgarians. His brother, Henry of Flanders, succeeded him and served until 1216.
Almaric (or Aimery) II (brother of Guy de Lusignan and husband of Isabella I of Jerusalem), King of Jerusalem and Cyprus, died from food poisoning on the first day of April 1205. His 6-year-old son, Hugh I, succeeded him as King of Cyprus, and Isabella I, his wife, continued to reign as Queen of the Kingdom of Jerusalem for only 4 days before she died. The throne passed to Maria, the daughter of Isabella I and Conrad I of Montferrat (Isabella’s first husband).
Phillipe de Plessis is said to have died on November 12, 1209, but some sources list him as dying in 1208. He was succeeded by Guillaume de Chartres who was elected and installed as Grand Master at the beginning of 1210. Guillaume assisted in the coronation of John I as King of Jerusalem who had married Queen Maria.
The Albigensian Crusade
The Albigensian Crusade was a significant and brutal chapter in medieval history, initiated by the Catholic Church to eradicate the Cathar heresy in the Languedoc region of southern France. The
Cathars, also known as the Albigensians, adhered to a dualist belief system that starkly contrasted with orthodox Catholic doctrine. Their belief in the evil nature of the material world and their rejection of the Catholic Church’s sacraments and hierarchy made them a target for the Church’s aggressive efforts to maintain religious unity and authority.
By the late 12th century, Catharism was heavily entrenched in the Languedoc region. Efforts to convert Cathars through preaching missions led by figures like Saint Dominic largely failed, leading Pope Innocent III to take more drastic measures. After the murder of the papal legate Pierre de Castelnau in 1208, which was attributed to Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse, the pope called for a crusade against the Cathars.
The crusade began in earnest in 1209, with northern French nobles and knights rallying to the cause, partly motivated by the promise of land and wealth in the prosperous Languedoc region. The first major military action was the Siege of Béziers in July 1209. When the town refused to surrender, the Crusaders launched a brutal assault. During the massacre that followed, thousands of inhabitants were killed, including many Catholics, leading to the infamous quote attributed to the papal legate, Arnaud Amalric: “Kill them all; God will know his own.”
Following the fall of Béziers, the Crusaders moved on to Carcassonne, another stronghold of Catharism. After a 2-week siege, the town surrendered in August 1209. The inhabitants were expelled, and the town was handed over to Simon de Montfort, a nobleman from northern France who was the de facto leader of the crusade. Over the years, the Crusaders moved through the region capturing Cathar fortresses or cities like Lavaur, Minerve, and Termes.
Toulouse, the heart of the Cathar resistance, became a focal point of the crusade. Simon de Montfort laid siege to the city multiple times, but Toulouse itself remained resilient. In 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council formally deposed Raymond VI and granted his lands to Simon de Montfort. Despite this, the struggle continued, and in 1217, Raymond VI recaptured Toulouse.
In 1218, a stone projectile killed Simon de Montfort during another siege of Toulouse. His death marked a turning point, as the crusade lost one of its most effective and feared leaders. Raymond VI regained much of his territory, and the crusade’s momentum waned.
From 1220 to 1224, numerous smaller sieges and battles occurred as the Crusaders and local lords vied for control over various strongholds. One pivotal event was the Siege of Avignon. Avignon, a key strategic stronghold and center of resistance, was targeted by King Louis VIII, who aimed to suppress the remaining pockets of Cathar opposition and enforce royal authority. The siege was marked by intense military action as Louis VIII’s forces surrounded and blockaded the city. Despite the defenders’ resistance, the siege was relatively short, and Avignon fell to the French troops after several months. The city's capture was significant in the broader context of the crusade, contributing to the suppression of Catharism and the solidification of French control in the region. The fall of Avignon underscored the final stages of the crusade, marking a key step in the French crown’s efforts to stabilize and dominate the Languedoc region.
Despite the setbacks, the crusade did not end immediately. Raymond VII, who succeeded his father Raymond VI, continued to resist the Crusaders. However, sustained pressure from the French Crown and the Church eventually forced him to negotiate. The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1229, marked the formal end of the Albigensian Crusade. Raymond VII was forced to cede significant territories to the French Crown and to accept the establishment of the Inquisition in Languedoc to root out the remaining Cathars.
While the crusade was formally ended, remnants of Cathar resistance persisted in the region. The Cathar movement did not disappear immediately, and there were still strongholds and communities that continued to resist the French crown and the Inquisition. The Siege of Montségur (1243–1244) was a dramatic and decisive confrontation during the final phases of the Albigensian Crusade. Montségur, a formidable Cathar stronghold situated on a high, rocky hill, was besieged by the forces of the French crown and the Inquisition. The siege lasted from March 1243 to March 1244. The aftermath was brutal: approximately 200 Cathar defenders, who refused to renounce their faith, were burned at the stake. The fall of Montségur marked the effective end of organized Cathar resistance and symbolized the culmination of the crusade’s efforts to eradicate heretical movements in the region.
The Albigensian Crusade had profound and lasting effects. It significantly weakened the feudal nobility of Languedoc and strengthened the French crown’s control over the region. The Cathar heresy was not immediately eradicated, but the systematic persecution by the Inquisition over the following decades ensured its gradual decline. By the mid-14th century, Catharism had largely disappeared as a significant religious movement. The crusade also left a legacy of brutality and religious intolerance. The massacre at Béziers and the ruthless suppression of the Cathars exemplified the extremes to which the Catholic Church and its allies were willing to go to maintain doctrinal unity and authority. This period marked a dark chapter in the history of medieval Christendom, characterized by the violent imposition of religious conformity and the destruction of a unique and diverse cultural and religious community.
The Templars did not play a leading role in this crusade. However, contrary to popular belief, the Templars were not entirely absent from this crusade. The Templars also played a role in the diplomatic efforts during the crusade. Given their respected status and connections with both secular and ecclesiastical authorities, they sometimes acted as mediators in negotiations and discussions. Their involvement in these diplomatic activities helped to facilitate communication and coordination among the various parties involved in the crusade. Also, true to their original mission, the Templars protected pilgrims and clergy traveling through the Languedoc region. The chaotic and violent nature of the crusade made such protection necessary, and the Templars’ reputation for safeguarding travelers was invaluable during this time.
They also did take part in battles of the Crusades against the Cathars or their supporters. One such example is the Battle of Muret (1213) where Simon de Montfort’s army defeated Peter II of Aragon. They may have also been present for the Siege of Carcassonne (1209) and the Siege of Toulouse (1217-1218). The latter of which may have been in the form of logistical support to the crusading army.
Officially, the Templars were aligned with the goals of the Albigensian Crusade, which aimed to eliminate Catharism, but despite their official stance, there have been allegations and speculations over the centuries that some Templars may have had sympathies toward the Cathars. Some of the theories stem from several possibilities. The Knights Templars had a significant presence in the Languedoc region, where Catharism was also prevalent. This geographic proximity led to interactions between Templars and Cathars. In some instances, local Templar commanders may have developed relationships with Cathar lords and communities. These relationships were more about local politics and alliances than official support for Cathar beliefs. The Templars often had to navigate complex local dynamics to maintain their holdings and influence. Some historians suggest that certain Templars might have been sympathetic to the Cathars’ ascetic lifestyle and emphasis on purity, which had superficial similarities to the Templars’ vows of poverty and chastity.
The Fifth Crusade
Queen Maria of Jerusalem died in 1212 and the throne passed to her infant daughter, Isabella II (sometimes called Yolanda), with John I serving as her regent until she came of age. Peter of Courtenay is elected Emperor of Constantinople after the death of Henry of Flanders.
In 1218, the Templars constructed the Château Pèlerin, or Pilgrim’s Castle, along the Israeli coast (~8 miles south of Haifa). The castle played a crucial role in safeguarding Christian routes and served as a base for the Order’s operations in the region.
Since the Fall of Jerusalem in 1187, the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem had been ruled from the city of Acre. The Crusaders desired to reclaim the Holy City. They planned to first conquer Egypt and then move to Jerusalem. The Templars participated in the Siege of Damietta, a key Egyptian port city. Although they initially succeeded in capturing Damietta in 1219, the Crusaders’ campaign ultimately failed due to poor strategic decisions and logistical challenges, leading to their defeat in 1221. The Siege of Damietta also resulted in the death of the Templar Grand Master, Guillaume de Chartres, on August 26, 1218. He was succeeded by Peter de Montaigu. Guerin de Montaigu, Peter’s brother, served as Grand Master of the Hospitallers at that time.
The Sultans of Cairo and Damascus united to defeat the Christians, but were repelled by an army composed of the Templars, Hospitallers, and the Teutonic Knights. The Sultan of Damascus then tried to negotiate a truce with the Christians via the Templar Grand Master, but the Papal Legate, Pelagius, refused to accept it, so the truce fell through. Had this truce come to fruition, the Sultan had promised to return pieces of wood from the True Cross that were captured during the Battle of Hattin. A truce finally came about in 1221, allowing the Templars to send troops to Spain to assist in the Reconquista.
The Holy Roman Emperor and the Sixth Crusade
In 1225, Maria was married to Frederick II, the Holy Roman Emperor, by proxy after John of Brienne, Maria’s father, traveled throughout Europe seeking assistance in the Holy Land. This marriage was part of Frederick’s broader strategy to strengthen his influence in the Crusader states as the marriage gave him a claim to the throne of Jerusalem.
Frederick II, who was also King of Germany, Italy, and Sicily, traveled to the Holy Land, not just to claim his rights through marriage, but also to assert his authority as King of Jerusalem. His journey was marked by diplomatic and military efforts aimed at reclaiming and securing Christian territories. Frederick’s approach was largely diplomatic, resulting in the Treaty of Jaffa in 1229, which temporarily secured Jerusalem for the Christians without significant military conflict. His reign, however, was controversial and faced opposition from various factions, including the papacy and local Crusader leaders.
Frederick II attacked Templar and Hospitaller lands after they criticized him for attempting to steal the wealth of the Christian Levant and was, for a time, excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church.
Isabella II died shortly after giving birth to her son, Conrad. Conrad inherited the Throne of Jerusalem from his mother. Frederick II served as the Regent of his son, but his regency was plagued by those who opposed Frederick’s perceived usurpation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
Led by the Holy Roman Emperor, the Sixth Crusade, started in 1228, was marked by diplomacy rather than warfare. The Templars were less involved in direct combat but played a role in the negotiations. Frederick II managed to secure Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Nazareth through a treaty with Sultan Al-Kamil of Egypt, temporarily restoring Christian control over these significant cities.
The Templars did participate in the Sixth Crusade, but their role was overshadowed by their skepticism of Frederick II’s leadership and the diplomatic methods he employed to achieve his objectives as they saw his accomplishments as temporary.
John of Brienne, after being removed as regent for his daughter, had served in many positions in service of the church, but in 1229 he was elected as Emperor-Regent for the Latin Empire of Constantinople as Baldwin II, son of Robert I (the previous Emperor), was too young to serve alone. John would serve until his death in March 1237.
Supporting the Reconquista
In the 13th century, the Knights Templar were actively involved in the Iberian Peninsula, playing a significant role in the Reconquista, the Christian effort to reclaim territories from Muslim rule. The Templars established numerous fortresses and commanderies in regions such as Aragon, Castile, and Portugal, serving as key military and strategic outposts. Their expertise in fortification and warfare significantly contributed to the Christian campaigns, providing vital support in battles and sieges. Notably, the Templars participated in major military actions, including the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, which marked a turning point in the Reconquista. Beyond their military endeavors, the Templars also engaged in administrative and economic activities, managing lands and resources to support their missions. Their presence in the Iberian Peninsula helped to bolster Christian defenses and facilitate the gradual expansion of Christian territories throughout the century.
In 1229, King Alfonso II, with the support of a coalition of Christian forces, including the Knights Templar, launched a campaign to capture Majorca, a crucial strategic island held by the Muslims. The Templars played a vital role in this campaign by providing essential military support and expertise. Their involvement was instrumental in the successful siege of the island's capital, Palma, which fell to the Christians, marking a decisive victory.
The Battle of Jerez took place on October 9, 1231. This battle was fought between the forces of the Kingdom of León, led by King Ferdinand III, and the Muslim forces. The battle was a significant victory for the Christian forces and contributed to their ongoing efforts to reclaim territory from the Muslim rulers in the region. In 1238, under Alfonso's leadership, Christian forces, including the Templars, laid siege to Valencia, which was then under Muslim control. The Templars assisted King James I of Aragon in capturing the town of Burriana in 1233. The Templars supported Ferdinand III of Castile in the siege and eventual capture of Jaén in 1246, further solidifying Christian control in southern Spain. They also assisted Ferdinand in capturing Seville in 1248. Seville had been one of the largest and most important cities in Muslim Spain.
Waning of the Templars in the Holy Land
Montaigu died in January of 1232 from a cerebral hemorrhage and was succeeded by Armand de Périgord. He is remembered for his failures, as they were often catastrophic and reduced the effectiveness of the Order in the Holy Land.
In 1236, the KnightsTemplar launched an attack on the town of Darbsak (also known as Darbasaq), located near the border with the Principality of Antioch. This effort was part of the Templars’ broader strategy to expand and consolidate their territories in the region. Darbsak, controlled by Muslim forces, was a strategic target due to its location and the potential to enhance the Templars’ influence and control in northern Syria. The Templars organized a substantial military force for the siege, leveraging their renowned expertise in warfare and siege tactics. However, the assault on Darbsak faced numerous challenges. The town’s defenses proved formidable, and the Muslim defenders were well-prepared to resist the Templar attack. Compounding the difficulties, the Templars encountered logistical problems, including shortages of supplies and reinforcements. Additionally, the defenders received support from neighboring Muslim forces, further bolstering their resistance. After a protracted and fierce struggle, the Templars were unable to breach the defenses of Darbsak. The siege ultimately failed, and the Templars were forced to withdraw, suffering significant casualties (around 80% of the troops) and loss of resources. The failed attack on Darbsak underscored the challenges the Templars faced in their efforts to expand their territories and highlighted the resilience and strength of the Muslim forces in the region.
The Khwarazmian Turks were forced out of their homeland in Central Asia by the Mongol invasion in the early 13th century. Displaced and seeking new territories, they moved westward and allied with the Sultan of Egypt, al-Salih Ayyub. This strategic partnership aimed to bolster Muslim resistance against the Crusader states in the Levant. In 1244, the Khwarazmian Turks captured Jerusalem, a significant blow to the Crusader's presence in the Holy Land, as it resulted in the city’s loss of Christian control once again. Their military prowess and aggressive tactics were further demonstrated at the Battle of La Forbie on October 17 of that year. In this decisive confrontation, the Khwarazmian Turks, alongside Egyptian forces, achieved a resounding victory over the combined armies of the Crusader states, including the Knights Templar, the Hospitallers, and other military orders. The battle was catastrophic for the Crusaders, leading to massive casualties (more than 30,000 died in this battle) and a severe weakening of their military strength in the region, thereby solidifying the Khwarazmian Turks’ reputation as formidable warriors and altering the balance of power in the Holy Land.
Around 30 Templars survived the battle and it was here that Armand de Périgord was killed; some accounts state he was captured and died in prison 3 years later having refused to be ransomed. Two months after the Battle of La Forbie, the Crusaders and Templars suffered another defeat at the Battle of Gaza. This battle was against the Khwarazmian Turks and the Sultan of Egypt, and the defeat compounded the setbacks the Christians had experienced at La Forbie and solidified the position of the Muslim forces in the region. Whether Armand de Périgord died or was captured at the Battle of La Forbie is a matter of contention and confuses the role of Richard de Bures who either was elected to be Grand Master or just acted during the captivity of Armand de Périgord. Regardless, Richard died in 1247 during the Siege of Ascalon which resulted in the fall of this coastal city to the Muslim forces. Guillaume de Sonnac was elected as Grand Master of the Templars in 1247.
The Seventh Crusade
In 1248, the Seventh Crusade was launched by King Louis IX of France. In June 1249, the Crusaders and Templars captured Damietta in Egypt. In November, the army started towards Cairo, but had to go through Mansurah to defeat a large Egyptian force. The crusader army could not overcome the city as the Nile River was running high. In February 1250, a native Egyptian showed the Crusaders how to cross the river. Without having the support of the main Crusader army, Robert, the Count of Artois and brother to King Louis IX, launched an attack on Mansurah. De Sonnac spoke against the attack, but ultimately joined the assault. The Egyptian forces used the narrow streets against the knights who couldn’t maneuver and defend themselves. De Sonnac and one other Templar were the only ones who escaped Mansurah, though De Sonnac had lost an eye. As De Sonnac escaped, the rest of the Crusader army arrived and was able to drive back the Egyptians into Mansurah. In early April 1250, the Egyptians launched another assault on the besieging Crusaders. The Templars fought back, but they were overwhelmed, and the Grand Master was killed. This battle also resulted in the capture of King Louis IX. De Sonnac was succeeded by Renaud de Vichiers.
Renaud de Vichiers had previously served as Master of France where he had become friends with King Louis IX. He even helped to secure funds for the king’s release. The latter part of his tenure is murky as there are stories that state he had a falling out with King Louis IX and others state that he resigned in 1252, putting his friendship ahead of the order. Regardless, Renaud de Vichiers died on January 20, 1256, and was succeeded by Thomas Bérard.
In 1254, Conrad II died of malaria and his 2-year-old son, Conrad III, inherited the Throne of Jerusalem, but he grew up at the court of his uncle and guardian, Louis II, Duke of Bavaria, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem was ruled by a regent from Cyprus.
Christian In-Fighting
When Thomas Bérard took over the Templars, the Holy Land and the Templar order were in dire straits. The Templar and Christian properties in the Holy Land were reduced to a mere few cities and fortresses. The War of St. Sabas was a conflict between the rival Italian maritime republics of Genoa and Venice over control of Acre. This started at the beginning of Bérard’s reign, and the Templars were not spared from this war as they sided with the Venetians while the Hospitallers sided with the Genoese. This war lasted until 1270 when the Peace of Cremona officially ended hostilities between the two sides.
While the Christian civil war was still ongoing, sometime around the end of 1263 or the beginning of 1264, cooperation was initiated by Bérard with Hugo de Revel, Grand Master of the Hospitallers, and Anno von Sangershausen, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights. On July 24, 1261, the Byzantines, under the command of Alexios Strategopoulos, recaptured the city of Constantinople. Baldwin II, the Latin Emperor of Constantinople, fled to France. He pleaded for help from other monarchs, but it never gained traction, and Baldwin II died in October 1273, having lived off a pension given to him by Charles de Anjou.
In England, a conflict erupted between King Henry III and a faction of rebellious barons led by Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester and son of Simon de Montfort who led the Albigensian Crusade. The barons were dissatisfied with Henry’s autocratic rule and his failure to uphold the Provisions of Oxford, a series of reforms aimed at limiting royal authority and addressing grievances about governance and taxation. By 1263, the kingdom was engulfed in civil war, with both sides vying for control and resources to sustain their military campaigns.
In this chaotic environment, Prince Edward, the king’s son and future Edward I, sought to bolster his position and fund his forces. Temple Church in London, a stronghold of the wealthy and influential Knights Templar, housed a significant treasury. On April 13, 1263, Edward, acting out of desperation and a strategic need for resources, entered Temple Church and seized its treasury. This act of ransacking a sacred and respected institution was indicative of the dire straits faced by the royalist faction and the lengths to which Edward was willing to go to secure financial support for his father’s cause. The incident further inflamed tensions and underscored the deep divisions within the kingdom, ultimately leading to continued conflict and the eventual Battle of Evesham in 1265, where Edward’s forces decisively defeated the baronial opposition. Initially, the Templars lodged formal complaints and sought redress for the breach of their property and the loss of their funds. Their response reflected a mix of outrage and pragmatic concern for the financial and reputational damage inflicted by the Prince’s actions. The incident strained relations between the Templars and the royal family.
If dealing with this Christian in-fighting wasn’t enough, the Mameluke Baïbars murdered the Sultan of Cairo in 1260 and consolidated his power. In 1263, Baïbars attempted to lay siege on Acre, but retreated after a few days of fighting. In 1264, the Templars and Hospitallers captured Lizon, a stronghold between Haifa and Jenin. They then destroyed a Mameluke unit composed of 300 men. In the next year, Baïbars started a campaign of brutality that devastated the Christian kingdom. In March 1265, he utterly destroyed Haifa and Caesarea. He attempted to seize control of Chateau-Pelerin, but the Templars were able to repel the Mamelukes. Baïbars turned his attention on Arsûf, but the Hospitallers were able to resist. After a month, the city surrendered after Baïbars promised to let everyone go free. As soon as the gates were opened, the knights were imprisoned. In 1266, Baîbars attacked the fortress of Safed which was held by the Templars. Baîbars suffered huge losses and executed several of his generals in response to their suggestion to abandon the siege. After a month of fighting, the Mamelukes were able to capture the fortress. Baîbars, again, made a false promise of leniency to the knights, but this time, instead of imprisonment, the Templars were all beheaded. Next fell Beaufort and Antioch in 1268, a devastating blow to Christendom. Gaston then fell and word came of Mamelukesheading to La Roche Guillaume. He attempted to send a message to surrender, but this had already occurred. The Templar and Hospitaller Grand Masters pleaded to the Pope for more support. Another crusade was preached, but only the Kings of France and Aragon responded, but a large contingent of that Christian host sank during a terrible storm.
Conrad III dies at the age of 16 after being beheaded by the order of Charles I of Anjou. The throne of the Kingdom of Jerusalem passed to Hugh III of Cyprus, son of Henry of Antioch and Isabella of Cyprus; Hugh was a descendant of Isabella I of Jerusalem and had already been serving as Regent for Conrad III.
The Eighth and Ninth Crusades
The Eighth Crusade, initiated in 1270 by King Louis IX of France, was the last of the major Crusades to the Holy Land and North Africa. Unlike previous Crusades aimed primarily at the Holy Land, this campaign targeted the city of Tunis in North Africa. Louis IX believed that by capturing Tunis, he could convert its ruler to Christianity and use it as a base for future operations in the Holy Land. In July 1270, the Crusaders landed near the ancient city of Carthage and laid siege to Tunis. Before any major battles could occur, disease broke out in the Crusader camps, resulting in the death of King Louis IX on August 25, 1270. Prince Edward of England negotiated a truce with the Emir of Tunis to allow the Crusaders to withdraw and for Christian prisoners to be released.
In February 1271, the Knights Templar were forced to surrender Chastel Blanc (located in the Principality of Antioch) and retreat to Tortosa (modern-day Tartus, Syria).
The Ninth Crusade, led by Prince Edward of England (later King Edward I), took place between 1271 and 1272 and is often considered the last major Crusade to the Holy Land. Following the unsuccessful Eighth Crusade, Edward sought to aid the remaining Crusader states and counter the growing threat of the Mamelukes. Arriving in Acre in May 1271, Edward conducted several raids and military engagements against the Mamluks. In the same month, Edward led an expedition towards Nazareth, engaging Mamluk forces in a series of skirmishes intended to assert Crusader control and disrupt Mamluk activities in the region. In June 1271, Edward led a raid on Qaqun (southeast of Haifa). The raid involved a swift and intense attack on the city, which was strategically significant for its location and resources. Although the Crusaders achieved some level of success in the raid, the operation did not result in a decisive victory. It did not substantially alter the broader strategic situation in the region.
Over the next year, Prince Edward led his forces through various smaller skirmishes and raids in the vicinity of Acre, the main stronghold of the remaining Crusader states in the Holy Land. During this Crusade, an assassination attempt occurred against Prince Edward. The assassin, part of a Mamluk plot, managed to wound Edward with a poisoned dagger, which put his life in grave danger. The Knights Templar present immediately took action to save the prince. They provided Edward with an antidote and other medicinal treatments to counteract the effects of the poison. The Templars’ timely intervention and their knowledge of medicinal remedies were instrumental in Edward’s survival.
In 1272, news of his father’s illness and subsequent death forced Edward to return to England, ending the Crusade. The Ninth Crusade marked the final major attempt by Western European powers to reclaim the Holy Land, highlighting the declining influence and effectiveness of the Crusading movement by the late 13th century.
The Fall of Acre
On March 25, 1273, Thomas Bérard died and was succeeded by Guillaume de Beaujeu, whose family had ties with King Louis IX and Charles I of Anjou. Although elected on May 13, 1273, Beaujeu wouldn’t arrive in Acre until September 1275, as he had been in Europe visiting Preceptories. During his European tour, a council was held in Lyon in 1274 by Pope Gregory X, where they discussed a proposed merger between the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar. This proposal aimed to consolidate the resources, manpower, and financial assets of the two powerful military orders to strengthen the defense of the Crusader states against the advancing Mamluk forces. The merger was envisioned to create a more unified and effective force and streamline administrative operations. However, the proposal was ultimately rejected due to several factors. Both orders were deeply resistant to the loss of their autonomy and distinct traditions. The Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar had different strategic priorities and approaches—Hospitallers focused on medical care and charity, while the Templars emphasized military fortification. Consequently, the proposed consolidation was not realized, and the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar continued to operate independently.
In 1284, Hugh III of Cyprus, King of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, died and his son John II ascended to the throne, but he contended with Charles I of Anjou who purchased a claim to the throne and had supporters in Acre. John II died a year later, and the crown passed to his younger brother, Henry II of Cyprus, the last crowned King of Jerusalem (after the fall of Acre in 1291 it became a titular title).
Beaujeu entered into an agreement with the Egyptian Sultan called the “Truce of Tortosa.” The peace didn’t last long, particularly after some recently arrived Christians killed some Egyptian merchants and the Sultanate changed hands. The new Sultan sent roughly 200,000 men to take the city. The defense was left to the Knights Templar, Knights Hospitallers, and the Teutonic Knights. On May 16, 1291, the Saracen Sappers created a breach in the wall of Acre. On May 18, 1291, the Egyptians launched a massive attack. Beaujeu led the knights to stem the flood of Egyptians. During this valiant attempt, Beaujeu was hit by “darts and arrows of the enemy,” where legend states Beaujeu dropped his sword and began to walk away. His fellow knights called after him, and he responded with “I am not running away, I am dead!” raising his arm to show his mortal wound, after which he collapsed and died. After a few more days of defense, the Muslims finally captured Acre and ended the Crusader occupation of the Holy Land. Guillaume de Beaujeu was succeeded by Thibaud Gaudin.
Thibaud Gaudin was present at the Siege of Acre, but when it was clear that Acre was going to fall to the Saracens, he was put on a boat for Sidon (Acre is south of Tyre and Sidon is north of Tyre). In August 1291, in Sidon, Gaudin was elected as GrandMaster. In October 1291, with a larger convocation gathered, the knights reaffirmed Gaudin’s election and elected Jacques DeMolay as Marshal. After the fall of Acre and the approach of the Saracens on Sidon, Gaudin went to Cyprus to gather more reinforcements. With the decline of fortunes in the Holy Land, Gaudin tried to reorganize the Templars, but was busied with helping protect the Kingdom of Armenia. It is believed that the job was too much for him because on April 16, 1292, he died of exhaustion.
The Last Grand Master
At the death of the previous Grand Master in 1292, Jacques de Molay was elected as Grand Master. The Templars were now headquartered on the island of Cyprus. Losing their last footing, the Templars lost their raison d'être, so De Molay departed for Europe to seek support for a Crusade to retake the Holy Land. This proved difficult as morale was down and, politically, the Templars were seen as the “men who lost the Holy Land,” so there was little faith in their ability to conquer the Mamluks. He was able to secure supplies to assist in the strengthening of the Cyprus island but couldn’t muster any commitment for a new Crusade. Jacques De Molay endeavored in the early years to reform the Order to strengthen it and prepare the knights for battle against the Egyptian Mamluks. They tried several times to take the coastal city of Tortosa (Syria) but relied on the assistance of the Mongols. Their faith in Mongol assistance was misplaced, as they had their own internal/tribal issues, and each time they attempted to retake Tortosa, they were pushed back to the staging island of Ruad.
In the 13th century, the Knights Templar were actively engaged across the Iberian Peninsula, Europe, and the Holy Land. In the Iberian Peninsula, they played a crucial role in the Reconquista, participating in key battles and sieges to reclaim territory from Muslim rule. In Europe, they wielded significant political and financial influence, and managed extensive assets. In the Holy Land, they were essential defenders of the Crusader states against the Mamluk Sultanate but faced increasing setbacks as Mamluk forces gained ground. The fall of Acre in 1291 marked the end of significant Crusader presence in the region, leading to a shift in Templar focus to their European holdings and setting the stage for the Order’s eventual dissolution in the early 14th century.
References
1. Bréhier, L. (1910). Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099-1291). In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08361a.htm
2. Essays, Biographies and Reviews. (n.d.). Retrieved from Balian d'Ibelin and the Kingdom of Jerusalem: http://www.defenderofjerusalem.com/essays--biographies--reviews.html
3. Kingdom of Jerusalem. (n.d.). Retrieved from Encyclopedia Brittanica: https://www.britannica.com/place/kingdom-of-Jerusalem
4. The History of the Knights Templar in relation Scottish Chronology. (n.d.). Retrieved from The Rosslyn Templars: http://www.rosslyntemplars.org.uk/index.php/knights-templar/
5. Timeline. (n.d.). Retrieved from Ordre du Temple: http://www.knight-templar.org.uk/History/timeline.htm.html
6. Timeline of the Ancient Templars. (n.d.). Retrieved from The Knights Templar: https://www.theknightstemplar.org/timeline-of-the-templars/
Friday morning, I made my way into central London and took a bus to Stonehenge. Located on the windswept Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, Stonehenge is one of the most iconic and mysterious monuments of the ancient world. Comprised of a circular layout of massive upright stones, it stands as a testament to Neolithic engineering, religious devotion, and social organization. The most prominent stones (each weighing up to 25 tons) are made of dense sandstone sourced from the Marlborough Downs, about 20 miles north. Interspersed among them are smaller bluestones, weighing 2 to 5 tons, transported from the Preseli Hills in southwest Wales (over 150 miles away). This feat of transportation and construction remains astonishing.
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